Is it possible to improve handwriting? How to fix handwriting? Why does my child have bad handwriting?

The study of urine analysis data occupies an important place in the diagnosis of pathological changes in the kidneys and heart diseases. Valuable additional information Thanks to a general urine test, it can also be obtained if the functions of other organs are impaired. Almost all disease processes in the body are reflected in the properties of urine. Repeated testing of laboratory parameters allows us to evaluate the stages pathological processes, the effect of drug therapy.

Result bad analysis urine should be a reason for the patient to consult a doctor.

What rules must be followed for collecting and donating urine?

Not all people know how to properly take a urine test and what collection requirements exist to minimize distortion of the data obtained.

Bio chemical composition urine directly depends on the amount of fluid entering the body, climatic conditions accommodation, physical activity. Before analysis, it is important to follow the rules for the delivery and storage of the biomaterial under study, which allows obtaining reliable data.

Before collecting urine for analysis, doctors recommend not to overeat for a day, especially not to overeat fatty, floury and sweet foods. You should avoid smoked and spicy foods. It is also important not to expose yourself to physical overload.

Urine is collected in a clean and dried container. It is best to take an average “portion” of morning urine. Women should know that during menstruation they should refrain from testing. IN emergency It is better to use urine output through a soft catheter. Catheterization is also used when it is impossible to empty yourself Bladder due to existing illnesses.

The analysis must be carried out within several hours after collecting the material. If this is not possible, then the urine must be stored in a cold place. Preservatives that do not distort the results of the study can also be used.

The patient's name and age must be marked on the container with the material.

Important:interpretation of the urine test is carried out only by a doctor who examines the patient and knows all the intricacies of the existing disease. It must be remembered that the results of a urine test without examination may be interpreted incorrectly.

Urine test norms for adults, table:

What indicators are assessed in a general urine test?

Clinical laboratories allow us to evaluate physical properties urine, its chemical composition and microscopic diagnosis of urinary sediment. In addition to the general clinical analysis Nechiporenko's method is used. With its help, additional clarification of kidney diseases is carried out.

Organoleptic and physicochemical properties assessed by general urine analysis

The organoleptic properties of urine include color, smell, and the amount of fluid released. Physico-chemical – density and chemical reaction.

The color of urine changes depending on its concentration and the presence of coloring substances. Wherein:

Urine smell determined in the case of a long stay in the container. The speed of its development depends on the room temperature.

In the presence of certain diseases may appear various shades the smell of urine, like this:

• infection with E. coli contributes to the development of fecal odor in the urine;
• ketonuria – acetone smell;
• isovaleric and glutaric acidemia – the smell of sweaty feet;
• trimethylaminuria - the shade of rotting fish;
• tyrosinemia – rancid fishy stench;
• phenylketonuria – mouse odor;
• fistulas between the intestines or purulent cavities and urinary tract– putrid stench;
• – smell of ammonia fumes;

Diabetes mellitus is characterized by a fruity tint due to the appearance of acetone in the urine.

Chemical reaction depends on the prevailing nature of the patient's diet . It is usually slightly acidic or neutral . Diabetes mellitus, chronic heart failure , kidney problems, pregnancy can give an acidic reaction. A pronounced acid reaction occurring against the background of acidosis of the body is characteristic of severe infectious diseases accompanied by fever, in diseases intestinal tract, fasting.

Alkalosis is a companion to chronic rapid breathing in diseases of the lungs and heart and provokes an alkaline reaction in the urine. The same changes occur with uncontrollable vomiting, some kidney diseases, pathology endocrine systems s, the use of diuretics, transfusions of large quantities of carbonate solutions for intravenous administration. Also, some foods can cause alkaline urine reaction.

Urine density an adult is in the range of 1.001 – 1.040 g/l . It is determined by the total concentration of physical compounds and organisms dissolved in it. These include proteins, pigments, glucose isomers, bacteria, and blood cells.

Quantity excreted urine per day healthy person ranges from 1 liter to 2 liters, depending on drinking load and air temperature. Diabetes mellitus is the main pathology in which the patient can excrete about 8 or more liters per day.

Note:At night, urine output normally slows down. If the opposite trend is observed, then a chronic process in the renal tissue or possible mental pathology should be suspected.

Biochemical characteristics of general urine analysis

Important indicators that help the doctor in the diagnostic process are data on the content of protein components, metabolic products of bile pigments, isomers of glucose, acetone and other substances.

Protein in urine test

Protein is not detected in the urine of a healthy person.

The reason for its appearance (proteinuria) may be:

• renal– in case of ingestion of protein from blood plasma during inflammatory kidney diseases, sharp external stimuli (extreme cold, stress, physical overload);
• extrarenal– protein enters the urine from the urinary ducts.

A urine protein test is a very important and valuable diagnostic indicator.

Urine test for sugar

Normally urine does not contain sugar. Detection of it may indicate the intake of large amounts of carbohydrates in food. Then we're talking about about physiological glucosuria.

Pathological glycosuria can be caused by:

• diabetes;
• pituitary diseases;
• pathology of the adrenal glands.

It’s worth considering if ketone bodies appear in a general urine test:

• acetone;
• acetoacetic acid;
• beta-hydroxybutyric acid

Their presence confirms the diagnosis of diabetes mellitus, acute inflammatory processes in kidney and liver tissue. For diabetes mellitus availability ketone bodies is a formidable sign of the development of one of the types of coma.

Microscopy of urinary sediment in a general urinalysis

This method evaluates the appearance of blood elements in the urine.

Urine test for red blood cells

The presence of red blood cells in the urine, both unchanged (containing hemoglobin) and changed (free from hemoglobin, colorless) is called hematuria.

There are two types of this condition:

• macrohematuria - red blood cells are found in the urine in large quantities, which is why it takes on a reddish tint (meat slop);
• microhematuria - red blood cells are detected only in the field of view of the microscope.

The appearance of unchanged red blood cells is characteristic of:

• kidney infarction;
• kidney tissue process;
• traumatic injuries;
• malignant tumors;
• inflammation of the bladder and urethra.

Determination of the level of the source of red blood cells is carried out with a three-glass sample:

• if there is blood in the first portion, it means the source of the blood is the urethra;
• if there is blood in three portions, there is a kidney pathology;
• if there is only blood in the last portion, then we are talking about inflammation of the bladder or a tumor process.

Urine analysis for the content of casts and epithelial cells

Cylinders are casts of the globulin structure, repeating the shape of the renal tubules.

Two types of casts can be detected in urine:

• hyaline – indicators of chronic nephritis;
• epithelial cell – desquamated cells of the renal tubules. Among them are: granular cylinders, waxy cylinders(flat homogeneous structures).

An increase in the number of cylinders (cylindruria) occurs during pathological processes in the kidney tubules. The number of these cells especially increases during nephrosis.

Epithelial cells in a general urine test are:

• flat ( round shape with a small core). Appears in the urine from the genital mucosa;
• transitional - lining the mucous membranes of the bladder and renal pelvis;
• renal (irregular shape with yellowish tint) are characteristic markers of kidney damage during infectious diseases and poisoning.

Urine analysis for leukocytes

Urine healthy individuals may contain in a single quantity leukocytes. When a laboratory technician detects accumulations of white blood cells throughout the entire field of view of the microscope, the doctor has every reason to suspect the patient has pyuria - pus in the urine. This condition can occur in severe forms inflammatory diseases kidneys – pyelonephritis, with purulent pathology of the bladder and urinary tract.

You can understand where the source of pyuria is thanks to a three-glass test, similar to determining the source of blood in the urine.

Urinalysis according to Nechiporenko is an additional and clarifying method for determining the degree of leukocytes in the urine (leukocyturia).

Urine is collected in the morning portion, after preparing and carrying out the procedure for toileting the external urinary organs. An average portion of morning urine is collected. For analysis, 5 ml of material is used, which is centrifuged for 10 minutes.

After this part of the analysis, the liquid contents are drained and the concentrate is placed in the Goryaev chamber to count the number of red blood cells, white blood cells and casts. The resulting number of elements is multiplied by 250.

If the number of leukocytes exceeds 2000 in 1 ml, then the patient can suspect inflammation of the bladder, the presence, kidney stone disease, .

If the number of red blood cells is more than 1000 per 1 ml, then the patient, in the presence of other signs, can be confirmed as having a kidney infarction.

The appearance of cylinders also confirms renal pathology, depending on the predominance of a certain form - hyaline, granular, waxy, erythrocyte and epithelial.

Norms for urine tests in a child

Urine test norms for a child, table:

A general urinalysis (UCA), also called a clinical urinalysis, is one of the most common laboratory research which is carried out for diagnostic purposes. It is prescribed for many diseases and includes the determination of up to 20 indicators, each of which helps in making the correct diagnosis. If you have been prescribed a general urine test, it will be useful to familiarize yourself with the rules for interpreting its results.

Why is a general urine test prescribed?

Urine (lat. urina), or urine, is a type of biological fluid secreted by the kidneys. Along with urine, many metabolic products are removed from the body, and therefore, by its characteristics, one can indirectly judge the composition of the blood and the condition of the urinary tract and kidneys.

Urine includes substances such as urea, uric acid, ketone bodies, amino acids, creatinine, glucose, protein, chlorides, sulfates and phosphates. Analysis of the chemical and microbiological composition of urine plays a role important role during diagnosis: any deviations from the norm indicate abnormal metabolism in the patient’s body.

When is a general urine test prescribed? This study necessary for any diseases of the genitourinary and endocrine systems, for deviations in the functioning of the cardiovascular and immune systems, as well as if you suspect diabetes. Also, a general urine test is prescribed for patients who have had a streptococcal infection. In addition, it is carried out for preventive purposes and to monitor the dynamics of diseases.

How to take a general urine test?

To ensure that the analysis results reflect the true clinical picture, preparation for the procedure and urine collection are carried out in compliance with a number of rules.

Basic requirements when preparing for a general urine test:

• You must purchase a special sterile container for collecting fluid in advance from a pharmacy or from a doctor;
• collection should be carried out in the morning: for analysis it is recommended to use the morning liquid that has accumulated overnight, while the “average portion” of a stream of urine is important for collecting into a container;
• the night before, you should avoid taking any medications that could affect the composition of your urine (it’s best to consult your doctor about this), as well as alcohol and coloring foods (beets, carrots, rhubarb, Bay leaf and etc.);
• morning urine is collected on an empty stomach, you should not eat or drink anything before;
• Before collecting the analysis, you should not be too cold or overheated.

Collection rules:

• it is advisable to collect 100–150 ml (or 2/3 of a special container);
• before collection, you need to thoroughly clean the genitals: in some cases, women are recommended to use a tampon;
• the collected liquid should be delivered to the laboratory as soon as possible (with a delay of no more than 2 hours);
• if the liquid needs to be stored for some time, then the container can be placed in a dark and cool, but not too cold place;
• It is advisable to transport the container at positive temperatures in the range of 5-20 degrees.

What does a general urine test show: deciphering the results

Decoding the results general analysis urine will help you understand the obtained indicators before visiting the doctor. However, in no case should you engage in self-diagnosis and self-medication based on the data obtained: for correct analysis results and diagnosis, you must consult a specialist.

Organoleptic indicators

Volume . The total volume of fluid for analysis does not allow us to draw any conclusions about diuresis disorders. It is only necessary to determine the specific gravity of urine ( relative density).

Diuresis is the volume of urine produced over a certain period of time (daily or minute diuresis). Daily diuresis is usually 1.5–2 liters (70–80% of the liquid drunk). An increase in daily diuresis is called polyuria, a decrease to 500 ml is called oliguria.

Color urine, as well as transparency, is determined by the laboratory assistant by eye. Normal color can vary from straw to deep yellow. It is determined by the presence of coloring substances in the urine - urobilin, urozein, uroerythrin. Any other shades can signal certain pathologies in the body, for example:

• dark brown – jaundice, hepatitis;
• red or pink color indicates the presence of blood in the analysis;
• dark red – hemoglobinuria, hemolytic crisis, porphyrin disease;
• black – alkaptonuria;
• a grayish-white color indicates the presence of pus;
• green or Blue colour explained by the processes of putrefaction in the intestines.

Smell does not have a general urine test of decisive importance, since many food products containing essential oils or simply strong-smelling foods can give it a specific smell. However, some odors may indicate certain pathologies:

• the smell of ammonia indicates cystitis;
• fecal odor - E. coli;
• putrid odor - gangrenous processes in the urinary tract;
• the smell of acetone – ketonuria (the presence of ketone bodies in the urine);
• the smell of rotting fish – trimethylaminuria (accumulation of trimethylamine in the body).

Normally, the smell of urine is mild and somewhat specific. If the container is open, the smell becomes pungent due to the oxidation process.

Foaminess . Normally, when shaking urine, practically no foam forms in it, and if it does, it is transparent and unstable. If the foam persists or is stained, we can talk about jaundice or the presence of protein in the urine.

Transparency urine of a healthy person approaches absolute. Cloudiness can be caused by the presence of red blood cells, bacteria, mucus, fats, salts, pus and other substances. The presence of any substance is detected using special techniques (heating, adding various acids, etc.). If red blood cells, bacteria, protein or epithelium were detected in the urine, this indicates urolithiasis, pyelonephritis, prostatitis and some other diseases. White blood cells indicate cystitis. Precipitation of salts indicates the presence of urates, phosphates, and oxalates.

physical and chemical indicators

Density . Specific Gravity urine is an indicator that depends on age. The norm for adults and children over 12 years old is 1.010–1.022 g/l, for children 4–12 years old – 1.012–1.020, for children aged 2–3 years old – 1.010–1.017, newborns – 1.008–1.018. The density of urine depends on the amount of salts, proteins, sugars and other substances dissolved in it. In some pathologies, this indicator increases due to the presence of bacteria, leukocytes, and red blood cells. Increased rate can talk about diabetes mellitus, infectious processes in the urinary tract. In pregnant women - indicates toxicosis. Density may also be increased due to insufficient fluid intake or fluid loss. A reduced rate indicates renal failure and diabetes insipidus. May also occur when drinking plenty of fluids or taking diuretic medications.

Acidity Normally it is in the range of 4–7 pH. A reduced rate may indicate the presence of many diseases: chronic renal failure, increased levels of potassium in the blood, parathyroid hormones, ureaplasmosis, kidney or bladder cancer, etc. Increased acidity also occurs with dehydration and fasting, when taking certain medications, when high temperature And heavy consumption meat. A pH higher than normal may indicate diabetes mellitus, decreased potassium levels, and disturbances in the acid-base balance of the blood.

Biochemical characteristics

Protein . Its concentration normally should not exceed 0.033 g/l. Detection of elevated levels may indicate kidney damage, inflammation in the genitourinary system, allergic reactions, leukemia, epilepsy, heart failure. An increase in the amount of protein occurs with increased physical activity, profuse sweating, long walk.

Increased protein in the urine is detected in physically poorly developed children 7–16 years old and pregnant women.

Sugar (glucose) in urine at normal levels – no more than 0.8 mmol/l. Increased sugar can be a consequence of diabetes, excessive consumption of sweets, kidney problems, acute pancreatitis, Cushing's syndrome, increased adrenaline levels due to damage to the adrenal glands. Also, increased sugar levels in the urine can occur during pregnancy.

Bilirubin - This bile pigment, which should normally be absent in the urine. Its detection indicates a sharp increase in the concentration of bilirubin in the blood, which is why the kidneys take on the job of removing it (normally, bilirubin is completely eliminated through the intestines). An increased level of this pigment in the urine indicates cirrhosis of the liver, hepatitis, liver failure, and cholelithiasis. The cause may also be massive destruction of red blood cells in the blood due to hemolytic disease, sickle cell anemia, malaria, toxic hemolysis.

Ketone bodies (acetone) Normally, they should not be detected in a general urine test. Their detection indicates metabolic disorders as a result of diseases such as diabetes mellitus, acute pancreatitis, thyrotoxicosis, and Itsenko-Cushing's disease. Also, the formation of ketone bodies occurs during fasting, due to alcohol intoxication, with excessive consumption of protein and fatty foods, due to toxicosis in pregnant women, as well as after injuries affecting the central nervous system.

Microscopic studies

Sediment (organic, inorganic) . In a general urine analysis, sediment refers to cells, cylinders, and salt crystals that settle after short-term centrifugation. We will talk in more detail about the various substances that can be detected in sediment below.

Blood cells (erythrocytes, leukocytes) . Erythrocytes - red blood cells - may be present in urine in small quantities (for women - 0-3 in the field of view, single ones - for men). An increased content of red blood cells indicates serious illnesses, such as:

• urolithiasis disease;
• nephrotic syndrome;
• kidney infarction;
• acute glomerulonephritis;
• cancer of the kidney, bladder, prostate.

Leukocytes in the sediment, identified in a general urine test, may be a consequence of urinary tract diseases (pyelonephritis, cystitis, urolithiasis, prostatitis, urethritis, cystitis, etc.). Normally, leukocytes in the urine of women and children are 0–6 per field of view, and in men – 0–3.

If the results of a general urine test showed you increased level leukocytes, you should make an appointment with a urologist, who will probably prescribe additional tests - repeat OAM or in combination with a urine test according to Nechiporenko, a three-glass test, or an ultrasound of the kidneys. Often, all concerns are dispelled after repeated and additional studies are carried out.

Hyaline casts - These are cylindrical formations, which are dominated by renal tubular cells and protein. Normally they should not be in the urine. Their detection (over 20 in 1 ml) indicates hypertension, pyelonephritis, glomerulonephritis. These cylindrical formations can also occur when taking diuretics.

Grainy cylinders . Their composition is dominated by erythrocytes and renal tubular cells. The presence of granular casts in the urine in any quantity indicates viral infections, pyelonephritis and glomerulonephritis. Lead poisoning is also possible.

Wax cylinders , or waxy casts, are formed as a result of a long stay in the lumen of the renal tubule of a hyaline or granular cast. Their presence in the urine in any quantity indicates pathologies such as chronic renal failure, renal amyloidosis (deposition of insoluble protein - amyloid) in the kidney tissue, nephrotic syndrome.

Bacteria . The presence of any bacteria in a general urine test indicates inflammatory processes in the urinary system. That is, normally bacteria should be absent. Their detection indicates infectious diseases such as urethritis, cystitis, prostatitis and others. To ensure reliable results, careful hygiene is required. intimate areas before collecting urine.

Mushrooms in urine, which normally should not be detected, are the result of infectious fungal lesions of the urinary tract and external genitalia. In addition, their detection may indicate immunodeficiency states and long-term use of antibiotics.

Salts . Their absence in urine is normal, but their presence in sediment may indicate the possibility of formation kidney stones. Elevated levels of uric acid (urate) can be the result of gout, nephritis, and chronic renal failure. Urates are often the result of a certain diet and dehydration. In newborns, the presence of urate is normal. Oxalates can be formed due to diabetes mellitus and pyelonephritis, hippuric acid crystals - due to intestinal dysbiosis and liver failure, phosphates - due to high calcium levels in the urine. However, it is always worth remembering that the detection of certain salts is often associated with increased consumption of certain foods, which means that their concentration can be easily reduced by changing the diet.

Summary table of the main indicators of general urine analysis with normal values as follows:

So, with the help of a general urine test, you can identify a variety of kidney and bladder diseases, problems with the prostate gland, tumors and pyelonephritis, as well as whole line pathological conditions on initial stages, When clinical manifestations as such are absent. Therefore, OAM should be carried out not only when painful sensations, but also for the prevention and early detection of many diseases genitourinary system to prevent their further development.

General urinalysis (UCA) is a study performed in laboratory conditions to determine the condition of the urinary system organs and diagnose pathologies of various etiologies. Before submitting biological material, you should consult with your doctor on how to properly prepare for the test and collect urine. After all, correct preparation for a general urine test allows you to obtain reliable results during the study.

How to properly prepare for research

Preparation for taking a urine test begins 24 hours before the test. At this time you should:

• give up excessive physical and emotional stress;
• exclude fried, canned, salty foods, as well as foods with food dyes from the diet;
• abstain from sexual intercourse;
• stop eating paprika, turmeric, beets, carrots, cranberries, and other vegetables, fruits and berries that can affect the color of urine;
• exclude alcoholic drinks, beer, mineral water, sweet carbonated drinks;
• refrain from taking vitamin-mineral complexes and some others medications, the cancellation of which should be consulted with your treating specialist.

Collection of biological material

You can find out how to prepare biological material for delivery from the doctor who issued the referral for the study. As a general rule, the following recommendations should be followed:

1. Prepare a urine container for donation. You should purchase a disposable sterile Plastic container, which can be done at any pharmacy or obtained in advance from the laboratory of the medical institution where the study will be carried out. If you don't have a special container, you can use glass jar, which should first be thoroughly washed with soap, sterilized along with the lid and dried. It is worth considering that some diagnostic laboratories do not accept biological material in containers other than a sterile container. Therefore, before collecting urine in medical institution you should clarify how to prepare for the analysis and correctly collect the fluid for the study.

1. Toilet the external genitalia using soap and running water and dry thoroughly with a towel. Before the study, it is recommended not to use antibacterial hygiene products.
2. Collect urine in a sterile container without touching the genitals. For urine testing general method 70-100 ml of an average portion of morning urine is enough. To collect it, you must first urinate past the jar, then collect the middle portion into a container, the latter also should not fall into the container.
3. Deliver the container with urine to the place of analysis - to the clinical laboratory at the place of referral within 1-2 hours. Otherwise, it is considered unsuitable for diagnostic data.

Collecting urine from a child

Preparation for urine analysis and collection of biological material in childhood parents should do it. If the child is on breastfeeding, mother should exclude from the diet prohibited foods that, together with milk, end up in children's body and can significantly distort the results. It is also worth consulting with your doctor regarding the medications your baby is taking—you may need to stop taking them for a few days to obtain reliable data during the study.

Also, during preparation for the study, parents may encounter difficulty in collecting biological material, since children under 2 years of age cannot fully control the urge to defecate. In this case, it is recommended to use a special medical urinal, which can be purchased at a pharmacy. Its use does not cause discomfort to the baby. It is universal - suitable for boys and girls.

Before collecting urine, the baby should be thoroughly washed with soap and dried with a towel. After this, open the packaging with the urine collector and glue it as indicated in the instructions for use. After some time, remove the filled urine bag and pour its contents into a sterile disposable container.

Your local pediatrician will tell you more about how to prepare for the test, and will also teach you how to use a urine collection bag correctly.

Interesting! Some doctors are inclined to believe that in order to conduct a study it is necessary to collect the entire portion of morning urine, since the first portion allows us to determine the condition of the lower organs of the urinary system (urethra), the second - the kidneys and ureters, the latter indicates the presence of pathological processes in. In this case, the last urination should be 6 hours before collecting biomaterial.

Indications for use

Urine is a liquid that is formed by the kidneys. Contains compounds formed during life processes. associated with the composition of the blood and reflects the functioning of the organs of the urinary system.

A general urine test is prescribed in the following cases:

• scheduled preventive examination;
• screening during pregnancy;
• if you suspect diseases of the urinary system;
• as an initial diagnostic measure for diseases of various etiologies;
• to confirm diabetes mellitus;
• to assess the effectiveness of the prescribed course of therapy;
• for the purpose of timely diagnosis of complications after illnesses of infectious etiology.

When should you not take a urine test?

A general analysis of urine makes it possible to determine deviations from the norm in chemical and physical data, which makes it possible to judge pathological processes in the urinary, cardiovascular, endocrine, digestive systems. That's why proper preparation the patient to collect urine allows you to obtain reliable information about the state of health and promptly prescribe the correct treatment. Preparation includes the following restrictions:

1. You should refrain from donating biological material for a week after cystoscopy and ureteroscopy. This is due to the fact that during these procedures the mucous membranes of the urinary tract are injured and the local microflora is disrupted, which entails a change in urine parameters. It is allowed to carry out general research urine after endoscopic interventions as directed by a doctor to determine the effectiveness of surgical measures and/or treatment.
2. It is worth abandoning OAM during colds and other infectious diseases that distort the results of the study. Infectious and inflammatory diseases of various etiologies lead to the growth of leukocytes in biological fluids and other elements, and taking medications affects the color of urine and can lead to sedimentation.
3. It is not recommended to give urine for general analysis to women during menstruation, since high probability penetration of secretions into biological material, which significantly affects the accuracy of the study. If there is an urgent need for diagnosis, you should use a hygienic swab, which can be replaced with cotton or gauze. During menstruation, you can also give urine in a laboratory where nurse Using a catheter, you will take the required volume of liquid, which will help prevent the ingress of secretions.

Research results

During the diagnosis, the following indicators are assessed:

• Color – normally urine is straw or yellow. Darkening of the biological fluid indicates liver disease, various infectious pathologies, as well as pathological dehydration due to vomiting and diarrhea. Redness may be the result of eating certain foods, so you should follow a diet, or the result of an increase in red blood cells in the blood, against the background of pyelonephritis or urolithiasis. Black color is a sign of melanoma and alkaptonuria.
• Transparency – Normal urine is clear. Precipitation and cloudiness are associated with an increase in the number of leukocytes, protein, red blood cells or the formation of pus, precipitation of salts, which indicates the presence of pathological processes in the organs of the urinary system.
• Density is an indicator that indicates the concentration of dissolved substances in the urine. A decrease in specific gravity is a sign of pyelonephritis, an increase indicates glomerulonephritis, diabetes mellitus.
• Acidity is an indicator that allows you to determine kidney disease, diabetes and inflammation of various locations. Normal pH levels range from 4 to 7.
• Protein is normally absent, but with the development of infectious and inflammatory processes in the urinary organs, the indicator increases. Also, an increase in the concentration of the element is associated with excessive physical exertion, so it is important to prepare for a general urine test and avoid exercise 24 hours before the test.
• Glucose is normally absent or does not exceed 0.8 mmol/l. If there is a small amount, you should reconsider your diet and take a blood test for sugar.
• Odor - normally urine does not have a pronounced and strong smell. The appearance of an ammonia aroma indicates inflammation of the bladder, acetone is a sign of ketonuria.
• Leukocytes are normally absent or do not exceed 3 units in men and 6 in women. Excess indicates urolithiasis, infectious diseases urinary system and prostate organs, oncology.
• Acetone is normally absent. An increase in the indicator is a sign of diabetes mellitus, excessive alcohol consumption, poor nutrition, severe intoxication, pancreatitis, CNS pathologies.
• Bilirubin should be absent. When diagnosing a small amount, diseases such as liver cirrhosis, gallbladder pathologies, anemia, hepatitis and renal failure should be differentiated.
• Hemoglobin is normally absent. Its detection is associated with malaria, heart attack and severe intoxication.
• Red blood cells should not exceed 3 units, otherwise there is reason to believe the presence of the following pathologies: kidney infarction, pyelonephritis, prostatitis or oncology of the urinary system.
• The epithelium is normally absent or does not exceed 10 units; with an increase in concentration, it indicates an infectious lesion of the kidneys and ureters.
• Salts, casts and bacteria are normally absent. Their diagnosis indicates an infectious process in the urinary system or the formation of stones.

OAM makes it possible to diagnose diseases of the urinary system and is used as a initial stage diagnosis of other diseases. To obtain a reliable result, you need to understand the question of how to prepare for a urine test and adhere to the recommendations provided.

Urine is one of the most important human biological fluids; most of it, of course, is water. In addition to it, urine contains many metabolic products. This explains the importance and informativeness of a general urine test.

Such an examination reflects the functioning of the urinary organs, as well as to some extent other systems. Using it, you can diagnose diseases of the kidneys, liver, prostate, neoplasms, and inflammatory processes in organs. Almost everyone has been prescribed such a test at least once in their life, either when they feel unwell or for preventive purposes. However, not everyone knows how to take a general urine test correctly. The article will tell you in detail about preparing for the test.

Urine parameters

Urine is analyzed according to the following criteria. They rate it:

• transparency, color, smell;
• relative density and Ph (physicochemical properties);
• the presence of leukocytes, erythrocytes, salt sediments (sediment study);
• ketone bodies of protein, sugar, hemoglobin (biochemical parameters);
• presence of microorganisms (microbiological examination.

Specialists ensure that the content of one or another component does not exceed the norm (leukocytes for men are up to 3 in the field of view, for women up to 6). Some substances are said to be completely absent normally; we are talking about protein and glucose. But this is not entirely true; traces of them can be present in the urine of an absolutely healthy person.

How to submit?

The composition of urine is greatly influenced by food, medications, physical exercise, stressful situations. To obtain reliable results, you should carefully prepare for the delivery of this biological material.

12 hours before taking a general urine test, you should exclude from your diet alcohol-containing drinks, spicy and salty foods, as well as those foods that can color the urine (beets).

You should cancel your appointment 24 hours before the expected test. vitamin complexes, stop taking herbal infusions, infusions

Preparing for the test also requires eliminating serious physical exercise, visiting the bathhouse and sauna.

Urine delivery for general analysis is carried out in the morning, this is explained by the fact that at night the kidneys produce more concentrated urine, so the pathology in it will be more noticeable.

Before the procedure itself, you need to thoroughly wash the external genitalia. In order to pass urine correctly, a woman must use the toilet in the correct way.

It is important to know that the average portion of urine is taken as the material for examination.. That is, first you need to urinate a little into the toilet, and then into a container for collecting urine (the amount of urine should be about 150-200 ml). This is done with the aim of not getting into the analysis epithelial cells from the urethra, because they can change the tests. It is important that when submitting urine for general analysis, the collection container does not touch the skin.

In order to pass the test correctly and not distort the test result, a woman should use a tampon during menstruation. But if possible, it is better to postpone such an examination

The container for analysis must be clean; it is best to purchase it at a pharmacy, but it is also acceptable to take an ordinary container with a wide neck. Then the biological fluid must be immediately transferred to the laboratory (no later than an hour and a half). It must be transported at a temperature no higher than 7 degrees and no lower than 3. On the jar of urine, it is imperative to indicate the patient’s information, as well as the initials of the doctor who ordered the examination. These rules must be strictly followed in order to obtain an objective result.

When submitting urine for a general analysis, you need to remember that some factors require you to delay such an examination if possible.

Relative contraindications for such a study are menstruation, high arterial pressure and fever. The results will not be entirely accurate. Therefore, if possible, it is worth rescheduling the test.

Urine analysis in children

The specifics, perhaps, will concern only newborns. For older children, the rules for passing are the same as for adults. For infants, there are special urinals. They look like a bag with a hole around which there is adhesive base. This urinal is attached between the baby’s legs. Of course, you should wash it thoroughly before doing this. Collected urine pour it into a jar and take it to the clinic.

To prevent leakage, it is better to pick up the child and hold him in an upright position.

Now let us carefully analyze each of the properties of urine being studied.

About the quantitative indicator

Normal amount for people who comply drinking regime, urine in the morning is about two hundred milliliters. This volume makes it possible to judge the relative density of urine.

Relative density

The specific gravity of urine in a healthy person ranges from 1020-1024. This parameter allows you to evaluate the concentration ability of the kidney. In chronic renal failure, the specific gravity is reduced, and in dehydration, on the contrary, it is high.

Color

This parameter depends on what pigmenting substances the urine contains. The normal color of urine is straw yellow. It can be more saturated with low water consumption, lighter with large volumes of liquid in the diet. It must be remembered that some foods and medications change the color of urine. In some cases, the color of urine indicates a particular pathology:

• the color of meat slops indicates glomerulonephritis;
• a milky tint indicates lymph stagnation;
• green color occurs when the kidney is degenerated of a fatty or hyaline nature;
• brown urine occurs with anemia of hemolytic origin, melanoma;
• color of beer in the presence of bilirubin in urine.

Urine the color of meat slops with glomerulonephritis

Smell

In a person without pathology, urine has a mild odor. In case of illness, it has a specific aroma. In the case of diabetes mellitus, for example, due to an excess of ketone bodies, urine acquires an apple aroma. When white blood cells and red blood cells break down in large volumes, the urine smells like rotten meat due to excess protein. This phenomenon occurs with bladder cancer.

With sexually transmitted infections, urine often takes on a fishy odor

Transparency

Normal urine is clear. The cloudy tint may be due to a large number of different shaped elements. In addition, this phenomenon may occur due to the presence of salts or bacteria.

Reaction

Ph is a variable characteristic; this indicator changes depending on the diet. The norm is a slightly acidic reaction. If the protein component predominates in it, then the urine becomes acidic. And when consuming plant products, it becomes acidic. It is important that some inflammatory diseases give the urine an alkaline reaction, which is an excellent environment for the proliferation of bacterial flora.

Sugar

Glucose should not be present in the urine. Sometimes there may be borderline values ​​when consuming large amounts of simple carbohydrates (raisins, baked goods, sweets) before testing. That is why, on the eve of submitting urine for a general analysis, you should not introduce them into your diet in large quantities. If, however, sugar is detected, then such a person needs to contact an endocrinologist to establish a diagnosis.

In addition to the standard general urine test, sugar can be determined using special test strips

Leukocytes

These cells, even with full health, can be in urine. For men, the norm is 1-3 cells in the field of view, and for the fair sex up to 5. If the values ​​​​exceed normal limits, then we are talking about the presence inflammatory process in the urinary tract. To make a diagnosis, a Nechiporenko analysis should be performed.

Using this examination, a differential diagnosis is made between pyelonephritis and glomerulonephritis

Red blood cells

There should be no red blood cells in the urine. Women can have up to 1 in their field of vision. If there are a lot of such elements in urine, then this may indicate the presence of diseases such as:

• urolithiasis disease;
• pyelonephritis;
• cystitis.

Ketone bodies

These substances in the urine indicate that the body is undergoing some kind of intoxication (alcohol, inflammatory). They also appear in diabetes mellitus in the stage of decompensation and, perhaps, also during hunger.

Bilirubin

If bilirubin appears in the urine of a healthy person, this is a sign of pathology. Normally, it does not exist in this biological fluid. Hepatitis of various origins, obstructive jaundice, cirrhosis and liver neoplasms are diseases in which bilirubin can be detected in the urine. But the product of its metabolism, urobilinogen, appears in hemolytic anemia.

With bilirubinuria, urine is the color of beer

Conclusion

General analysis of urine is one of the simplest, but at the same time effective techniques detection of the disease. It is worth knowing and strictly following the rules of its delivery.